a temporary condition prior to rebirth. The name given to scarabs, Cheper, was descriptive of the god-like powers attributed to it, i.e., spontaneous generation, ‘‘to come into being,’’ and rebirth in the same form after death. Klausnitzer (1981) noted that, with the spread of the cult of the god Osiris and its associated concept of judgment of the dead, heart scarabs carved from greenstone (green being a particularly lucky color) began to replace the heart of the dead in burial chambers or placed in the wrappings of mummies. These heart scarabs frequently had verse from the Egyptian Book of the Dead written on the bottom surface. Associated with these scarabs was the idea that at the Day of Judgment, the true heart should not bear witness against its owner. With magical powers being attributed to it, the scarab’s likeness was fashioned into amulets, jewelry, and seals (Fig. 2). Pharaoh Amenophis III (ca. 1,400 B.C.) commemorated special occasions (such as his marriage or a hunt) by issuing scarabs (Fig. 3) … much in the same fashion as commemorative coins are issued today (Reitter 1961). These scarabs were often of large size (Fig. 4) and were of excellent workmanship. Scarabs soon became more generally associated with good fortune, and craftsmen produced increasingly greater numbers of them made from stone or fired clay. The oval underside often bore an inscription such as ‘‘good luck,’’ ‘‘life,’’ or ‘‘health’’ as well as the names or symbols of the gods. Scarabs were strung on cords or copper wire and worn around the neck. The use of scarab amulets expanded until they were used as good luck charms by many cultures, including the later rulers of Egypt, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and especially the Phoenicians. Cambefort (1994) noted that scarabs were very important to the Carthaginians and were found in abundance in their tombs, having been imported in large quantities from Egypt. Sardinia developed an industry for making scarabs, and it was from there that many ornamental scarabs went to Rome. Scarabs apparently had medicinal powers ascribed to them as well. The origin of this is probably derived from religious veneration. Amulets were worn as protection against evil spells, and several papyrus documents provide information about using scarabs in popular medicine. Even today, a cottage industry in Cairo and the Nile Valley continues to manufacture scarabs for the tourist trade and, to a lesser extent, for fine jewelry. The Remainder of Africa Africa, especially south of the Sahara, has a diverse scarab fauna. Some of these scarabs are also relatively large (e.g., Augosoma centaurus [Fabr.] and Oryctes spp.) (both Dynastinae), and yet I am unfamiliar with any reference that mentions the use of scarab body parts (especially elytra, pronota, or horns) being used as ornamentation on items of clothing, headdresses, jewelry, or ceremonial objects. Despite the lack of reliable data, it is known that insects are an important dietary item in many aboriginal societies, both to supplement protein deficiencies during lean times as well as to complement other food resources at certain seasons (Ruddle 1973). Native hunter-gatherers or subsistence farmers traditionally eat insects, and people in many parts of Africa routinely use insects, including scarabs, as human food. The Betsileo of Madagascar, a pastoral people who, despite their herds, are essentially vegetarians, eat cockchafer grubs (Melolonthi- nae), other insects, and small fish (Bodenheimer 1951). Tessmann (1913) recorded that the larva of the large dynastine, Augosoma centaurus (Fabr.), was forbidden to the uninitiated Pangwe men of the Cameroons. Adults of Popillia femoralis Klug (Rutelinae) were sold as food by COLEOPTERISTS SOCIETY MONOGRAPH NUMBER 5, 2006 87